The Quran's Transformation: From Oral Performance to Literary Text and Its Hermeneutical Implications

In his highly informative  book, The Prophet's Whistle: Late Antique Orality, Literacy, and the Quran, George Archer explores the fascinating interplay between orality and literacy in the development of the Quran. Archer argues that the Quran emerged in a cultural environment transitioning from primarily oral to increasingly literate modes of thought. This transition is reflected in the Quran itself, which initially manifests as an oral performance but gradually incorporates more signs of literary thinking. This perspective carries significant implications for how we approach the interpretation of the Quran, demanding a methodology attuned to the nuances of its historical and cultural context.

Archer argues that the Quran's earliest passages are deeply rooted in oral culture. These passages presume the physical presence of a speaker, Muhammad, and rely on pronouns and contextual cues rather than proper nouns and detailed explanations. This suggests that the early Quran was not designed for independent reading but for vocal recital by a singular reciter. The significance and embodiment found in a deeply oral performance mean that individual elements carry more weight than in mundane speech. Empty stock phrases, idioms, references, and signifiers interlock, reinforcing each other and anchoring the material in cultural memory.

However, as the Quran's suras evolved over approximately twenty years (traditionally reconstructed as 610 to 632 CE), evidence of literate thinking began to appear. This shift is evident in several ways:

• Increasing length and complexity: The suras and verses of the Quran became longer and more intricate, suggesting a move away from ease of memorization, a key feature of oral cultures.
• Emergence of abstractions: The Quran began to incorporate abstract concepts and categorical thoughts, indicating a move towards the impersonal and analytical thinking associated with literacy.
• References to writing: The Quran displays a growing fascination with writing, with references to pens, tablets, and scribes. While the early Quran was primarily an oral performance, the Prophet's mind was aware of and influenced by the technology of writing.
• Addressing a wider audience: The Medinan Quran, in particular, shows signs of addressing a broader, more generic audience. This is reflected in the declarations of audience within the text, hinting at an implied general reader, similar to that of a written novel.

Archer emphasises that this transformation was not a simple replacement of orality with literacy. Instead, the Quran exists on a continuum between the two, retaining its oral character while simultaneously incorporating literary elements. Muhammad, as the Quran's narrator, remained largely uneducated in the formal sense, yet his mind and the minds of his community grew increasingly comfortable with more literate kinds of thought.

This unique blend of orality and literacy had profound implications for the development of Islam. The Quran's highly embodied voice and situational context necessitated a considerable body of secondary literatures, such as biographies of the Prophet (sīra-maghāzī) and interpretations of the Quran (tafsīr), to provide contextualization. Moreover, the Quran's insistence on its own Arabic orality played a role in the spread of Islam and the Arabic language across diverse cultures.

Hermeneutical Implications: Intertextuality, Interorality, and Arabian Late Antiquity

Archer's work invites a re-evaluation of traditional hermeneutical approaches to the Quran, urging scholars to consider the significance of intertextuality and interorality within the specific religious milieu of Arabian Late Antiquity. The Quran did not emerge in a vacuum; it was shaped by and responded to a complex web of existing religious, cultural, and literary traditions.

Intertextuality refers to the ways in which texts relate to one another. In the case of the Quran, this means recognizing its engagement with earlier religious traditions, particularly Judaism and Christianity, as well as pre-Islamic Arabian beliefs and practices. Archer highlights how the Quran utilizes reprises that nod to earlier texts like Psalm 136, demonstrating that the Quran makes use of forms that predate it. Recognizing these connections is crucial for understanding the Quran's arguments, its self-positioning, and its intended audience. The Quran often reinterprets familiar narratives, adapts existing legal concepts, and appropriates symbols and figures from these traditions. For example, stories of Abraham or Moses are retold with variations that highlight specific theological or ethical points. The Quran also refers to "the Psalms of Abraham and Moses," indicating awareness of existing scriptural traditions. Neglecting this intertextual dimension risks misinterpreting the Quran's message and overlooking its nuanced engagement with its predecessors.

However, the intertextual dimension extends beyond written sources. Interorality, a concept central to Archer's analysis, emphasizes the role of oral traditions and performances in shaping the Quran. Arabian Late Antiquity was a vibrant oral culture, where stories, poems, and religious teachings were transmitted primarily through spoken word. The Quran, initially an oral performance, inevitably absorbed and responded to this oral landscape. Stock phrases, idioms, and cultural references common in oral discourse found their way into the Quranic text, enriching its meaning and resonating with its audience. An appreciation of interorality helps to explain the Quran's elliptical style, its reliance on shared cultural knowledge, and its use of rhetorical devices designed for oral delivery.

Understanding the religious milieu of Arabian Late Antiquity is also essential for interpreting the Quran. This period witnessed a dynamic interplay of religious ideas, with Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and indigenous Arabian beliefs coexisting and influencing one another. The Quran emerged within this context, engaging with existing religious debates, addressing specific concerns of different religious communities, and offering its own distinctive vision.

For example, the Quran's treatment of the "People of the Book" (Jews and Christians) reflects the complex relationship between early Muslims and these communities. Passages discussing dietary laws or legal matters often allude to existing Jewish or Christian practices, offering modifications or alternative perspectives. Similarly, the Quran's references to jinn, supernatural beings often worshiped by Arab pagans, indicate an engagement with pre-Islamic Arabian religious beliefs.

Furthermore, Archer's analysis of orality and literacy sheds light on the Quran's use of signs, parables, and types. These literary devices, which become increasingly prominent in the later Meccan and Medinan suras, function as comparisons that bridge the gap between the familiar and the abstract. A sign is a performance in that it must be sensed and internalized, yet it is also a text in that it lingers longer than spoken word, and by interpreting, translating, and reading it properly, otherwise undetected knowledge is made available. By recognizing the intertextual and interoral connections embedded within these signs, interpreters can unlock deeper layers of meaning and appreciate the Quran's sophisticated rhetorical strategies.

However, Archer cautions against imposing modern notions of literacy and interpretation onto the Quran. The Quran's engagement with writing was fundamentally different from that of a fully literate culture. Early Arabic script was still developing, and literacy was not widespread. The Quran;s relationship to written texts was thus mediated by orality, with scribes often recording recitations rather than composing independently. This means that interpretations must consider the oral context of the Quran's production and reception, paying attention to its sound, rhythm, and performative aspects.

In conclusion, Archer's The Prophet's  Whistle provides a valuable framework for understanding the Quran's complex relationship to orality and literacy. By integrating insights from anthropology, cognitive science, and literary theory, Archer challenges traditional approaches to Quranic studies and highlights the importance of considering the historical, cultural, and religious context in which the Quran emerged. Recognizing the Quran's intertextual and interoral connections, as well as the unique characteristics of Arabian Late Antiquity, is essential for a more nuanced and accurate interpretation of this foundational text. This approach not only enriches our understanding of the Quran but also promotes a more informed and respectful engagement with Islamic tradition.